How to Write an Essay
Your first step: Your first step is to create your thesis
sentence. Choosing first the topic, then the stance to take on that topic might
be the most important step in the essay. Turning a poor topic/thesis into a
good essay is a difficult task.
Avoid the stale, worn-out topics like gun control and abortion;
also avoid vague, wishy-washy topics like “music” or “what a real friend is.”
Once a suitable topic is chosen, avoid taking the obvious stance
on that topic. Arguing that the elderly should have access to food is a waste
of time and effort. Of course the elderly should have access to food. Everyone
already agrees with that proposition.
Instead, choose a minority opinion—go against the grain. This is
what thinking—the kind of thinking demanded in college—is all about. We want
fresh insights, new angles on old problems. An essay about how we should go to
school so we can get a better job is tame and obvious. Think beyond the
obvious. Is making money really the only reason to go to school? Is the kind of
intelligence valued in school the same as the intelligence valued in work? Why
do we want to make money anyway? How did this economic system come about? Is it
really the best of all possible worlds? And so on. This is the kind of critical
thinking writers should engage in before selecting a topic and a thesis
sentence. Good thesis sentences cover new ground; bad thesis sentences cover
the same ground that thousands of others have already covered.
Prewriting: There are many forms of prewriting;
ultimately, an outline serves as the best platform from which to create an
essay. As a bare minimum (a “barebones outline”), the writer should have a
major point (the thesis) and three sub-points—the support. A barebones outline
might look like this:
Ø We should focus on obtaining what is
necessary for life. (thesis)
o
food
o
shelter
o
warmth
This minimal structure can serve as the jumping off point for an
essay. Or, if further security is desired, the barebones outline can be made
fuller:
Ø The one-word items can be turned into
complete sentences.
Ø A third level can be added. If we think of
the thesis as level 1 and the three sub-points as level 2, then the next level
of the outline would be level 3. Some details about food—examples of food or
explanation of why food is so important—would become the third level of the
outline. The same is true of details about shelter and warmth.
Once a satisfactory outline has been created, two steps still
remain.
The first is to check for
overlap. Our three points must be distinct from one another. In fact, our
sample above is guilty of overlap. Since the terms “shelter” and “warmth” are
not entirely distinct, we would probably want to revise—a better third term
would improve our outline.
The second step is to arrange our three points in some logical
order. The most common order in which to place our points is weakest to strongest. Such an order
takes advantage of the psychology of argument, giving our readers the
impression that our essay is gaining in strength as it unfolds. So if we were
to arrange our three sub-points, we would probably reverse the current order:
warmth (weakest), shelter, and food (strongest). (Due to the fact that we
usually think of our strongest points first, it is often the case that we need
to discuss our points in the reverse order that we thought of them.)
Not till we’ve take all these steps are we ready to begin writing.
The Three-Part Essay
A standard essay consists of three constituent parts—the
introduction, the body, and the conclusion.
The Introductory Paragraph
The thesis sentence—the essay’s primary claim—should be the last
sentence of the introductory paragraph. Since we already have our thesis
sentence—it’s the first part of our outline—we can simply place it at the end
of the paragraph.
In the “basic” introductory paragraph, we start general and work
toward the specific. And once our thesis sentence is in place, we know exactly
where we’re heading. So if our thesis sentence is about “baseball,” we might
begin our introductory paragraph discussing “sports”; if our thesis sentence is
about “eating carrots,” we might begin our introductory paragraph discussing
“health.”
In a good introductory paragraph, we don’t tip our cards. In other
words, we don’t reveal where we’re heading too soon. The specific mention of
“baseball” or “eating carrots” should not appear till about the halfway point
of the introductory paragraph. Many awkward paragraphs have been written due to
a failure to follow this rule. Here’s why:
The introductory paragraph needs a sense of direction, of
movement. It must end up at the thesis statement, but in order to have movement
it must start someplace else. If you start at the place where you are trying to
end up, you have no place to go. If you want to end at “baseball,” beginning your
introductory paragraph with a sentence about “baseball” will guarantee that the
paragraph goes nowhere. Consider the analogy of driving somewhere. Your job is
to drive for ten minutes and end up at Big Lots. The worst mistake you can make
is starting at Big Lots. If you do, you will spend ten minutes spinning your
tires in the Big Lots parking lot—and who wants to do that?
The previous paragraph discusses the “basic” introduction. But
there are others. Students might also consider:
Ø
furnishing
a vivid description
Ø
telling
a brief story
Ø
giving
a revealing fact, statistic, or definition
Ø
making
an interesting comparison
Ø
presenting
a dramatic example
Ø using an exciting quotation
Both the “flashy” introduction and the “basic” introduction have
their place. In essay testing situations—essays like the Exit Exam essay and
the SAT essay—students should write the flashy introduction. However, in an
eight-page paper for a biology class, the flashy introduction would seem out of
place.
A common problem: In many introductory paragraphs, there is
an awkward movement from the penultimate (second-to-last) sentence and the
thesis. Why? Because first we created the last sentence; then we went back to
the first; then we tried to artificially write our way straight into our thesis.
The fact that the penultimate sentence and the thesis sentence don’t sound
natural together is often painfully obvious. Students must pay close attention
to this juncture between the two sentences. A clever, creative transition is needed here—usually several
words, sometimes a complete sentence. The object is to give a blending effect.
Since the transition that belongs at this key junction must link all the
previous sentences to the thesis, it will probably be of the “given what I’ve
said so far in this paragraph, it seems reasonable to conclude that what I’m
about to say (in the thesis) is true” variety.
Two options: Some teachers ask students to include
their three points in their thesis; some don’t.
Ø leave
the points out: We should
focus on obtaining what is necessary for life.
Ø include
the points: We should
focus on obtaining what is necessary for life, necessities like warmth,
shelter, and food.
I, Mr. Moeller, recommend the first option. Here’s why: (1) In an
essay form that is already quite mechanical, including the points adds a
further degree of mechanicalness. (2) Listing the points first takes away any
pleasurable sense of suspense from the reader; instead of discovering the
essay’s argument as he reads, the reader already knows exactly where he’s
going.
The Body Paragraphs
The body paragraphs are the most important part of the essay. This
is where a writer’s ability to think is
demonstrated. The preference for “flashy” introductions may be unfortunate:
such a preference may give the wrong impression that a good essay has more
style than substance.
But, in reality, substance will always trump style (at least in an
essay), and it is in the body paragraphs that writers have the opportunity of
giving their essays substance.
Transitions + Topic Sentences
Each body paragraph should begin with a combination transition and
a topic sentence. Assuming an outline has already been created, the supporting
points from the outline become the topic sentences of the body paragraphs.
Simple transitions are words like “first,” “second,” and “third.” So if we were
to use our “necessities” example, a minimal set-up for our essay might look
like this:
Ø We should focus on obtaining what is
necessary for life. (thesis—appears at the end of the first paragraph)
o
First,
warmth is important. (transition + topic sentence—appears at the beginning of
the first body paragraph, second paragraph of the essay)
o
Second,
shelter is important. (transition + topic sentence—appears at the beginning of
the second body paragraph, third paragraph of the essay)
o
Third,
food is important. (transition + topic sentence—appears at the beginning of the
third body paragraph, fourth paragraph of the essay)
We can think of these four sentences as the essay’s scaffolding. These are the bones around
which we wrap the flesh, the framing around which we build the house.
The examples above are examples of minimal transitions + topic sentences. But some writers will find
even more support in full transitions
+ topic sentences. With the full transition + topic sentence, many more
words—often the full thesis—are repeated. Here is the same essay in a fuller,
more formal version:
Ø We should focus on obtaining what is
necessary for life. (thesis—appears at the end of the first paragraph)
o
One
example of a necessity is warmth. (transition + topic sentence—appears at the
beginning of the first body paragraph, second paragraph of the essay)
o
A
second example of a necessity is shelter. (transition + topic sentence—appears
at the beginning of the second body paragraph, third paragraph of the essay)
o
The
best example of a necessity is food. (transition + topic sentence—appears at
the beginning of the third body paragraph, fourth paragraph of the essay)
Note that the third example, rather than using “third,” now uses
“best.” It make sense that if we’ve gone through the trouble of arranging our
points from weakest to strongest, then we might as well capitalize on this
logical arrangement and make it clear to the reader. By calling our third point
our “best” point, the reader sees that we are moving in a sensible,
premeditated direction.
Ultimately, each teacher will decide whether certain wordings
(like full or minimal transitions) are required on any given essay assignment.
But consider these two strengths of the full transition:
1. In the absence of full transitions,
readers must supply the missing words. The transition “first” really means
“this is the first item I am offering in support of my thesis sentence,” and
the reader must plug in those words in order to make sense of the minimal
transition “first.” The full transition simply lays down the words that the
reader would otherwise have to supply himself.
2. The shorter the transition, the more room
for the writer to go astray. Longer transitions that repeat all or some of the
thesis force the writer to remain on
task—like blinders on a horse.
The Amazing,
One-Size-Fits-All, Transition + Topic Sentence
The most common essay is the persuasion or argument essay. In the
persuasion or argument essay the writer makes a statement, then gives reasons
why that statement is true. Example:
thesis: The
topic sentence: One reason that the
However, in addition to the argument essay, there are other types
of essays as well:
·
causes
(showing causes)
·
effects
(showing results)
·
comparison
(showing similarities)
·
contrast
(showing differences)
·
division
/ classification (dividing a larger group into smaller groups)
·
example
(giving examples)
·
process
or how-to (telling the reader how to do something)
Writers who have learned how to construct the topic sentence for
persuasion/argument essays are prepared to write most any type of essay they
might be faced with. Notice how each topic sentence contains a key word, which can find in boldface.
·
the “causes” topic sentence: One cause
of the invasion of
·
the “effects” topic sentence: One (result
or effect) of the invasion of
·
the “comparison” topic sentence: One similarity
between the invasion of
·
the “contrast” topic sentence: One difference
between the invasion of
·
the “division / classification” topic
sentence: One type of invasion is …
·
the “example” topic sentence: One example
of an invasion by the
·
the “process / how-to” topic sentence: (This one is different.) You can invade
any helpless suburb by following these easy steps.
Filling the Body Paragraphs
Body paragraphs can contain:
Ø
Examples
and illustrations
Ø
Data
(facts, statistics, evidence)
Ø
Expert
testimony (probably in the form of quotations)
Ø
Logical
reasoning
Ø
Anecdotes
(personal stories)
Ø Definitions of terms
But regardless of what a body paragraph is filled with, the one
overarching rule is the more specific, the better. (“Specific details” actually does
belong in the list above, but since it applies to all body-paragraph writing, we will consider it as the one item
that stands above and beyond all the other.)
Given a hypothetical paragraph on the importance of food, here are
some examples of how we might develop the paragraph:
Ø
Examples: Rice is an example of an important,
life-sustaining food.
Ø
Data: In a sampling of 300 respondents, the Society for the
Importance of Food finds that 100% of human beings need food to survive.
Ø
Expert testimony:
Ø
Logical reasoning: No living being can stay alive without
some form of nourishment. Human beings are living beings. Therefore, human
beings need nourishment to survive.
Ø
Anecdote: I had a friend, Buster, who went two days
without eating. He lost weight and became ill. Then he began eating and,
miraculously, Buster regained his previous health.
Ø
Definition of terms: Food is any substance, usually composed
primarily of carbohydrates, fats,
water and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal or human
being for nutrition or pleasure. (from Wikipedia)
Ø The
more specific, the better:
A person who is hungry can assuage his hunger by consuming food a Nutter
Butter Sandwich Cookie Bite with chocolate-covered peanut frosting.
Note: In a serious essay, the anecdote makes for
a weaker body paragraph and should be saved as an ace up the sleeve—to be used
only when no other option presents itself. On the other hand, in a timed essay,
in-class essay, or essay testing situations, you do not have recourse to doing
research. In such situations, providing data would be nearly impossible and
anecdotes would be more acceptable.
Make Every Sentence Count
You must have an understanding of the concept of “levels of
generality”: furniture > table > coffee table > wide maru coffee
table. This is the same type of logical thinking that goes into constructing an
essay. The thesis sentence is level 1, the most general; the supporting
points/topic sentences are level 2; the sentences that constitute the body
paragraphs and that support the topic sentences are at level 3, the most
specific.
Once this is understood, a common error in body paragraphs can be
avoided: once the topic sentence has
been established, all other sentences in the body paragraphs must be more
specific. Immediately, beginning with the second sentence of the paragraph.
For some reason, many students kind of linger at level 2, as if
they are afraid to really get into generating the specific details they need to
generate. Some examples:
topic sentence: Food is important.
bad second sentence: We all need food. (same level of
generality; redundant)
good second sentence: Rice, for example, supplies us with
manganese, thiamin, and selenium.
topic sentence: An aspiring Ultimate Frisbee player will
need to master some basic maneuvers.
bad second sentence: These basic maneuvers are very important
for a new players to learn. (same level of generality; redundant)
good second sentence: The “swing” is a throw that allows a
player to move the disc from one side of the field to the other.
Of course, there is no law against stopping after a bad second
sentence. Many body paragraphs then go on to include bad third sentences,
fourth sentence, fifth sentences, etc. Such paragraphs may never reach the
third (most specific) level of generality at all. The rule writers should learn
is this: After the first sentence, shift
immediately into specific support
sentences—no more general sentences allowed. Therefore, our definition of a
good body paragraph is “one supporting point (the topic sentence) followed by a
series sentences that contain specific supporting details.
The final sentence: Some teachers ask that body paragraphs be
concluded with some sort of summary sentence—like the topic sentence’s evil
twin. But, again, this is nothing more than a convention that creates a
mechanical stipulation where none need be created. Another strange device
sometimes found in the final sentence is the “preview” or “teaser” sentence—the
one that says to the reader “if you think that was great, wait till you see
what’s coming up in the next paragraph.” Again, another mechanical (and
awkward) convention that is best avoided.
The Conclusion
Probably the most important rule in the concluding paragraph is to
avoid telling the reader a second time
what you’ve already told her the first time—don’t repeat.
That said, here are some ideas for writing a concluding paragraph:
Ø
highlight
the most important issue
Ø
ask a
question that gets readers to think about something in particular
Ø
predict
the future
Ø
offer
a solution to a problem
Ø
call
readers to action (several of these strategies can be used in combination)
Ø summarize the main ideas (but only as a
last resort, and only if it can be done without repeating in the same words what
was already said)
The concluding paragraph should offer the reader something
new—otherwise, it has little reason to justify its existence. But this
“something new” should not be confused with more support for the thesis: that
part of the essay is now over and one with. This is why choices like “predict
the future,” “offer a solution,” and “call to action” are good choices: such
choices guarantee that the writer will use the concluding paragraph to move in
some new direction.
The Five-Paragraph Essay
The “academic essay” and the “essay” are not the same thing. There
is another world of prose writing out there, found in the pages of the
It is easy to criticize the five-paragraph essay. But consider.
The five-paragraph essay doesn’t claim to form future Didions and Dillards. In
fact, what it claims to do it does quite well, and that is to allow
lesser-skilled writers an opportunity to write successfully. Furthermore, the
five-paragraph essay provides practice in the most fundamental principle of all
academic writing: making a general statement and supporting it. This is one
principle that all writing of the non-creative type cannot—and should not—get
away from.
The five-paragraph essay does come with some degree of
flexibility—for those who disdain the number “five”:
Ø Body paragraphs can be added or
subtracted, thus creating longer or shorter essays.
Ø The size of the paragraphs themselves can
be “beefed up” to create longer essays.
Ø Paragraphs serving purposes other than
supporting the thesis can be added. For example, a paragraph (or section of
paragraphs) presenting the opposing point of view can be added to an essay.
Ø A point may be dealt with in more than one
paragraph. For example, if the topic is “necessities,” the concept of “food”
may take several paragraphs to cover adequately.
Ø There are several ways to move beyond the
five-paragraph essay: (1) Instead of creating body paragraphs that refer back
to the thesis sentence, have them refer back to the previous paragraph. (2) Use
several paragraphs (instead of one) to cover a point. (3) Use sections of your
essay to approach a topic from various angles. For example: a few paragraphs on
the history of topic X, then the definition of topic X, then a survey of how
people currently view topic X, then some material stating your own opinion on
topic X, then some reflection on how topic X might be important in the future,
and so on.
In summary, the five-paragraph essay form may be adapted to suit
other purposes than the five-paragraph essay.
It might be said of the five-paragraph essay that, while it may
not guarantee a top score on any essay endeavor, it can guarantee avoiding a
low score.
So a sensible, balanced approach to the five-paragraph essay might
look something like this: Accomplished writers who are capable of creating for
their essay an organizational pattern that subscribes to its own inherent logic
should do so; others are probably best served using the five-paragraph essay—or
any of its permutations.
Important Essay-Related
Skills
The realm of English grammar, usage, conventions, etc., contains
hundreds of skills that an English teacher could choose to teach. But the
following are closely tied to essay writing, and should be taught in
conjunction with the teaching of the essay.
Transitions
The term “transition” is closely linked to the term “coherence.”
Writing that is full of transitions has coherence; writing that lacks
transitions does not have coherence. In fact, studies have been done
demonstrating that the presence of transitions is the prime indicator of the
maturity of a piece of writing.
But just throwing out the word “transitions” can lead to some
fuzziness in what we are referring to. So let’s be clear:
Each of our topic sentences for our body paragraphs should begin
with a transition. These are mandated transitions, and they serve the simple
purpose of arranging the paragraphs in sequence: first, second, best. Another
transition area we’ve already discussed is the “joint” between the thesis
sentence and the penultimate sentence in the introductory paragraph. Each of
these references is specific in nature. But that still leaves the inclusion of
essays everywhere else in the essay. So let’s take a look at what transitions
are.
There are four types:
Type 1: Same word. “Bertie crunched into the Nutter
Butter. The Nutter Butter shot bursts of flavor deep into every
taste bud in his mouth.”
Type 2: Same thing, different words. “Bertie
crunched into the Nutter Butter. The nugget of peanut buttery
goodness shot bursts of flavor deep into every taste bud in his mouth.”
Type 3: Pronouns. “Bertie crunched into the Nutter
Butter. It shot bursts of flavor deep into every taste bud in his
mouth.”
Type 4: Conventional. “Bertie crunched into the
Nutter Butter. However, it had passed its expiration date.
Some key words: this, that, these, those, such
When using the term “transition,” we are usually referring to
linkages that cross sentence boundaries. Transitions usually have antecedents
that appear before the previous period. In the first example, the second
“Nutter Butter” is the transition, referring back to its antecedent, the first
“Nutter Butter.” In the second example, the words “nugget of peanut butter
goodness” are the transition, referring back to its antecedent, the words
“Nutter Butter.” In the third example, the pronoun “It” is the transition,
referring back to its antecedent, the words “Nutter Butter.” In the fourth
example, the word “however” is the transition, referring back the idea
(something larger than a word or two) that came before. Most conjunctions can
serve as type four transitions. Note also that most (but not all) transitions
occur near the beginning of the sentence they occur in.
Pronoun Issues
For those who love pronoun issues, a wide variety exists. Of
these, four prove problematic in the realm of student essays.
1. They: The most common pronoun agreement error is
to try to get a plural pronoun (“they,” “them,” “their”) to link to a singular
antecedent, which it simply cannot do. The word the plural pronoun will be
trying to link to is most always one of the indefinite pronouns. Here is a list
of indefinite pronouns:
another, anybody,
anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither,
nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
Some of these words sound as if there must be more than one person
or thing in there, so the agreement error is understandable. But still an
error. Example:
Ø Somebody had left their gum on my seat.
The plural pronoun “their” cannot refer to the singular antecedent
“somebody.”
Here is an example that doesn’t use an indefinite pronoun:
Ø A writer needs to be careful. They
cannot drop just any pronoun into their writing.
The plural pronoun “they” cannot refer to the singular antecedent
“writer.”
Instead of the plural “they,” we have three choices:
Ø “He”—the traditional, no-nonsense,
old-school approach
Ø “She”—the politically aware and
progressive approach
Ø “He or she”—the grammatically
conservative—though at time awkward—approach
However, in (almost) all cases, the simpler solution is to leave
the plural pronoun in place, but change
to antecedent to a plural. Frequently this means saying “people” instead of
“a person.” In the example above it means saying “writers” instead of “a
writer.”
Ø Writers need to be careful. They cannot drop just any
pronoun into their writing.
2. You: The use of “you” is almost always an
error. Students use “you” to mean “a generic person,” but, linguistically, it
means “you, the person who is reading this essay.” A sentence like “You
shouldn’t trade your glasses in for contacts” would make no sense to the reader
if the reader didn’t wear glasses to begin with. The writer of such a sentence
really means “People in general shouldn’t trade their glasses in for contacts.”
In fact, the word “people” can be thought of as the default substitute for the
pronoun “you.” However, whenever possible, writers should come up with more
specific designations than “people.” For example, the sentence “People
should avoid checkout lanes containing those who use coupons” can be rewritten
as “Shoppers should avoid checkout lanes containing those who use coupons.”
So the rule is simple: avoid using
“you.” In addition, avoid the awkward substitutes for “you,” like “one” and
“individuals.”
“We” is best used when writers are admitting that they, too, have
flaws: “We need to work together to decrease carbon emissions.” But not to
exclude the reader: “We like to chill with I-Pods” (meaning us cool young
people, not you fogie old person reading this essay). The same principal
applies in other situations as well. Writers should remain dispassionate
observers, standing above and beyond the issues they are discussing. Therefore,
we refer to the
3. It: “It” can be used in three ways:
Ø as a pronoun with a clear antecedent:
“Bertie said he was hearing a bell, but I could not hear it.”
Ø as an idiom: “It is cold outside.”
Ø as part of an expletive construction: “It
is the rain that you hear on the roof.”
Of these three, only the first guarantees clarity. The other two,
though not grammatically incorrect, do begin to drift into vagueness. Since
both the idiom and the expletive can usually be reworded—and thus improved—it
is best to avoid both. Otherwise, vague, unclear “ifs” may appear, as in the
following:
Ø When people obtain a desire for higher
learning, it shows other people that the time they have taken in school
has truly paid off. (What does “it” refer to?)
Ø With these skills, it is essential to
apply it in the work environment. (What does the second “it” refer to?)
Ø It is possible that people may not be able
to keep their careers because they cannot handle the burden. It is a
struggle for those who have yet to obtain the fundamentals. (What does the
second “it” refer to?)
4. Who/That: Each of these words belong to the
“relative pronoun” family. The rule in their usage is simple: use “who” with
people, “that” with things. A common error is to use “that” with people.
Ø Only hire a cook that has a tall
white hat. (cook who has …)
Ø I like people that loan me money.
(people who loan …)
Other Issues
Run-ons and Fragments—Pronoun errors are the most frequent, but
run-on and fragment errors are the most serious. A single run-on or fragment
error jeopardizes the score any essay will receive.
Run-ons occur when the writer should have stopped for a period (or
a semicolon or a comma and conjunction), but didn’t. Thus two sentences are
packed between one beginning capital letter and one ending period.
Fragments occur when a writer drops in a period, but the sentence
has yet to be completed. Good writers do use intentional fragments on occasion,
and good readers can usually tell when this is the case. When in doubt, write
“intentional fragment” in the margin.
Most run-ons and fragments are the result of carelessness.
Students should proofread all papers before turning them in—and look especially
hard for run-ons and fragments.
Contractions—Avoid contractions in formal, academic
writing. Instead of writing “don’t,” write “do not.”
Intensifiers—Included in the word group knows as
intensifiers are words such as “very,” “quite,” “rather,” “terribly,” and
“unbelievably.” The most common of these is “very,” and nine out of ten times
it can be avoided. Don’t say “My
essay is very tight” if “My essay is tight” says the same thing. Often, the two
word combination “very + word” can be replaced by a single, better word that
carries the meaning of “very + word.”
Wordiness, Inflated
Language, and Essayisms—Though
it is an essay and though the tone should be more formal than the tone of
average writing, students must still write in a voice that sounds as if a real human
being is speaking. Choice descriptive words are nice, but not at the price of
overreaching.
Certain phrases (“essayisms”) appear only in essays, and nowhere
else:
Ø
in
today’s world
Ø
in
our modern society
Ø
in
life
Ø nowadays
And many others. Such language should simply be excised from all
essays before they get turned in.
Summary
Much of what is contained in this section can be turned in to handy
editing skills. Ideally, through repetition and intensive study, certain words
and word groups should cause a knee-jerk reaction, thus allowing you to become your
own editors. Among the knee-jerkers are:
Ø
they,
them, their
Ø
you
Ø
it
Ø
that
Ø
apostrophes
Ø very
The Research Paper and MLA
Style
The Research Paper
Without doing research, a writer would be limited to personal experience
and a narrow range of personal or knowledge-limited essay topics. Once we move
outward from the essay to the research paper, we move into the realm of using
MLA style.
Doing Research
Research requirements will vary depending on the structure of the
essay/research paper assignment. At one end of the spectrum we have the
“circumscribed” paper: the source for quotations is the literature book or an
article or articles provided by the teacher. At the other end of the spectrum
is the true research paper with a free choice of topic. And many intermediate
points between these two extremes can be imagined as well.
The more “open” the assignment, the more you will need to know how
to do research. The three categories of research materials are reference materials,
books, and articles in periodicals. The Internet might be thought of as a
fourth domain, though much of what is found on the Internet can be categorized
as one of the other three domains.
Usually, the best place for research is your school library. You
should learn what subscription databases are available at the school site and
how those databases can be accessed. What search engines are available, how to
narrow searches, how to evaluate sources—this knowledge, too, should be
considered essential.
Between Research and Writing
In between gathering information (research) and writing the
research paper, two other steps remain to be considered: note taking and
outlining.
Once, the standard note-taking procedure was to use index cards,
but today many researchers compile their notes directly onto their computers.
Regardless of the method used for note taking, most notes will be in one of
three forms: summary, paraphrase, or direct quotation. Traditionally, the step
after note taking has been to create an outline from the notes—but, again, each
writer would need to create an outline that suits his or her own vision of what
finished research paper should look like.
MLA Style
MLA style includes the knowledge how to integrate quotations (see
“Teaching to Integrate Quotations”) and the knowledge of how to cite
quotations.
Background
MLA stands for Modern Language Association (www.mla.org). The MLA
publication that concerns us at the high school level is the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
(6th edition) by Joseph Gibaldi, published in 2003. It is the style manual
most widely used by English majors and English professors. Because English
teachers use MLA style and because English teachers are the ones teaching the
research paper in high school, many students come to believe that MLA style is the style manual—but, in reality, it is
only one of many. For example, anthropology majors might use AAA style,
psychology majors might use APA style, and history majors might use
In college, your instructors will probably designate the style
manual they want you to use.
Integrating Quotations
Attributing and citing sources and avoiding plagiarism go hand in
hand. There is nothing wrong with borrowing words from other sources; and if we
always identify borrowed words (or ideas) as borrowed words (or ideas), we can
avoid being guilty of plagiarism.
The Research Paper
Any student who can write an essay is only a few steps away from
being able to write a research paper. Whereas the essay might consist solely of
your own ideas, the research paper combines your words and ideas with words and
ideas gathered from other sources. Therefore, the ability to write an essay
combined with the ability to integrate and cite words borrowed from other
sources equals the ability to write a research paper.
Teachers often ask for a minimum number of quotations.
Unfortunately, this minimum quotation requirement can mask the true benefits of
research and quoting; it is a mistake to believe that research and quoting has
no other purpose beyond filling the arbitrary requirements of adding quotations
to your essays.
Most nonfiction writing is packed with quotations. The writers of
these pieces are under no obligation to include these quotations. They include
them because there are experts out there who have already done a great deal of
thinking on the subject at hand and who have expressed certain ideas better
than others can express them. For the writers, the right to borrow words from
others serves a real and a natural purpose.
The same is true of research itself. Research serves the real and
natural purpose of informing us about the topic on which we have chosen to
write, thus giving us a better understanding of what we are writing about. If
we are asked to do some writing, but we are limited only to what already exists
inside our heads, we would find that there are few subjects on which we can
write expertly. However, if we could read up on a topic, we would then have
much to say. Students could be given an example. Manatees, for instance.
Imagine sitting down with a pencil in hand and being given the instruction “You
will write an expository essay. You have one hour. Your topic is ‘manatees.’”
Many of us would be putting our pencils down after five minutes. But imagine
that we are given a week to read all we can about manatees. In fact, we may
have any manatee-related materials we wish with us as we write our essay.
Therein lies the difference between the essay and the research paper: with the
research paper, we do the preliminary work of informing ourselves about the
topic on which we are going to write.
Students who believe that mandatory quotations are nothing more
than mandatory quotations are tempted to completely undermine the research
paper process by reversing what should be the natural process. First they write
their paper. Then they recall, “Oh yes, I need to include three quotations.” So
they skim through some articles, find a few quotations, and plug them into
their essays. So in addition to stressing the real importance of research and
quoting, we should also structure research paper assignments so that the
research has to be done prior to the writing of the paper.
In summary, too many students believe that mandatory quotations
are nothing more than a hoop to jump through. They need to be made aware of the
natural benefits of doing research; they need to see that borrowing wordings
from other writers would be a natural outflow of having done research. We quote
because someone else has said something really well—not because our teachers
require us to do so.
Integrating Quotations,
continued
The key word here is “integrating.” Learn “graceful” quoting;
avoid “clunky” quoting.
With graceful quoting, you blend words of your own with words that
are quoted. In most (but not all) cases, your own words take up the first part
of the sentence, while the quoted words take up the second. Most examples of
graceful quoting will look something like this:
Ø Graceful:
Since the medical
knowledge of the time could not explain the plagues
which could wipe out whole villages, it was assumed that “these mass fatalities
were signs of God’s displeasure.”
Ø Graceful: “Crop circle” is a term used to describe “geometrical
formations of flattened crops.”
Clunky
quoting, on the other hand, usually consists of a complete sentence of the
students own words, followed by a complete sentence of quoted material.
Ø Clunky:
On
Ø Clunky:
Liberia
has a long history of being exploited. “During the Cold War,
US news
and propaganda
flowed across Africa
from the Voice of America in Liberia.”
Featuring Quotations
Quoting must be kept in perspective. Some students mistakenly
think that, because quotations are being required, they must be terribly
important. These students write their essays in such a way as to “feature” their
quotations. The quotations become the central pillars of their essays, and the
rest of the essay gets demoted into playing a supporting role.
Here is one way to test that quotations are being kept in
perspective. Take the quotation marks out. With all quotation marks removed,
the reader should not know that the writer has quoted anyone. Keeping this rule
in mind can eliminate many of the painfully poor uses of quotations; it can
keep students from “featuring” their quotations.
awkward use #1: One mistaken use of quotations is to
repeat the writer’s own words: Jack had painted his house red, as we can see
from my quotation which I am now placing in my essay: “Jack had painted his
house red.”
awkward use #2: Another mistaken use of quotations is to
use the quotation as the thesis, followed by explanation. In such writing, the
quotation is inevitably followed by the words “what this means is …” : “Jack
had painted his house red.” What this means is …
The “take out the quotation marks and the writer shouldn’t know
there are any quotations” rule helps to avoid both of these awkward uses of
quotations.
The Proper Role for
Quotations
The previous section discusses what should not be done with quotations. As for what should be done with quotations, recall what we’ve learned about the
types of material that can be used to fill body paragraphs. Among these items
is the listing “Expert testimony (probably in the form of quotations).” So, how
are quotations best use” Quotations are best used as supporting material for topic sentences. In other words, they
should provide new information, and
they should appear within an essay’s body paragraphs, but not in the topic
sentence.
Ultimately, the strength of an essay rests on a student’s own
words, own ideas. The quoted material serves to support a student’s own ideas, not vice-versa.
Signal Phrases
To begin with, signal phrases are synonyms for “says.” Writers may
use any word that is a synonym for “says,” but
should not use the word “says” itself. Here are some signal phrases:
admits, agrees, argues, asserts, believes, claims, compares, confirms,
contends, declares, denies, emphasizes, insists, notes, observes, points, out,
reasons, recalls, refutes, rejects, reports, responds, replies, suggests,
thinks, writes
Signal phrases may appear after a
quotation:
·
“Eat
to live, and not live to eat” warns
Benjamin Franklin.
In the middle of a quotation:
·
“Early
to bed and early to rise,” advises
Usually, however, signal phrases precede quotations. When signal
phrases precede quotations, writers have two options:
with a comma:
·
with “that” instead of a comma:
·
The second version might be better than the first; using “that”
instead of a comma is more closely aligned to the skill of graceful quoting, in
which the reader tries to get text to “flow” into the quotation.
Use of the colon: In a response to literature, you will
likely be making observations about a text and supporting those observations
with quotations from that text. The colon is the ideal punctuation mark for
doing just that. Here are two examples from Nathaniel Hawthorne:
·
In
the second chapter of The Scarlet Letter,
·
But,
though it may seem that Chillingsworth goes unpunished for his crimes, his
punishment is greater than Hester’s: “What other dungeon
is so dark as one’s own heart! What jailer so inexorable as one’s self!”
(
Here the use of the colon should be apparent. Make a general
observation, followed by a colon, followed by a quotation that supports that
general observation. The colon seemingly allows writers to sidestep two of our
“graceful quoting” principles. Not only does it allow a quotation to repeat
words that come before, but it also allows a normally clunky complete sentence
to be used in our text.
Last resorts: “According to ___” and “in ___’s words”
offer to other possibilities for incorporating a quotation, but these wordings
are weaker than the methods offered above and should only be used as last
resorts. Some students, unfortunately, fall into these two weaker forms as
their default method—so when other wordings present themselves, those other
wordings should be used.
Flourishes
In addition to the name of the person to
whom we are attributing the quotation, we might also choose to add some
explanatory material: possibly some biographical material, possibly some
material naming the text in which the quotation is originally found.
biographical material:
·
Benjamin Franklin, a representative from
naming the text:
·
In
Poor Richard’s Almanac, Benjamin Franklin reminds his readers
that “Three may keep a
secret, if two of them are dead.”
Though these flourishes are available to
students, they should be used sparingly—only when the biographical material or
the naming of the text adds additional weight to the words of source.
Paraphrase and Summary
Paraphrase is more close-up, covering a
smaller portion of text; summary if further away, covering a larger portion of
text. But both are methods for using a source’s ideas without using the
source’s exact words. A writer using paraphrase or summary will need an in-text
citation even though no quotation marks are used:
·
Emerson believed that God could be found through a
more direct route (15-19).
Longer Quotations, Poetry, and Drama
The guidelines above assume standard,
common prose quotations of shorter lengths. However, in the case of longer
quotations, poetry, and drama, different guidelines apply.
Longer Quotations:
If a student plans on using a quotation
of more than four typed lines, it quotation needs to be essential to the
essay’s argument; the quotation should not appear to be mere padding to give an
essay added length.
Assuming the longer quotation is a
worthy one, the steps to take are these:
1.
Lead in to the quotation with a colon. Hit Enter.
2.
Type the quotation, with the in-text citation at the
end—with one difference. In a longer quotation, the final punctuation mark
(probably a period) appears to the left, not to the right, of the in-text
citation.
3.
One inch must be added to the left margin of the
long quotation. To do this, select the quotation. Go Alt O+P. Add one inch (from 1 inch to 2
inches) to the left margin.
Poetry
Two differences: (1) When quoting three
or fewer poetic lines, the lines are divided by slashes. (2) Instead of using
the in-text citation to refer to the source and the page number, we use it to
refer to line numbers, as in these lines from Pablo Neruda: “I hear / faltering
cries / among harbors” (lines 3-5).
Four-or-more lines of quoted poetry are
treated like longer quotations: they are typed just as they appear in their
original, they are set an inch from the left, and the terminal punctuation
appears to the left of the final parentheses.
Drama
Four or fewer lines of drama, spoken by
a single character, are written in the standard in-line form. But the drama,
the parentheses now contain the act, the scene, and the line numbers, as in
this example from The Crucible, spoken
by Abigail Williams: “You
loved me, John Proctor, and whatever sin it is, you love me yet” (1.4.21-22).
With a single character speaking more than four lines or with more
than one character speaking, set the material in one inch from the margin (as
with poetry) and place the terminal
punctuation to the left of the final parentheses.
Brackets
Brackets are used whenever to indicate
any word changes to a quotation (changes that take place within quotation
marks). Three common uses of the bracket are:
To indicate a change in verb tense: Charles Dickens
wrote: “Jacob Marley forged the chains he wore in life.”
If we were to write about A Christmas Carol, we might apply these
words to Scrooge; but since the essay is in present tense, the quoted words
must be converted to the present tense:
·
As Scrooge gazed at Marley, he began to see that it
is in life, not in death, that a person “forge[s] the chains he [wears]”
(Dickens 52). (Note that brackets can be placed around the verb ending or the
entire verb, depending on the change the word undergoes.)
To add explanatory
information: The writer,
who holds the original text being quoted from, is privy to information that the
reader of the essay does not have; therefore, explanatory information is
frequently needed to help clarify or provide context for quotations. Ralph
Waldo Emerson writes: “Not for nothing one face, one character, one fact, makes
much impression on him, and another none. This sculpture in the memory is not
without pre-established harmony.”
Suppose we want to quote the second of the two sentences. We know what “this sculpture” is, but
our reader does not; so we must explain “this sculpture” inside brackets:
·
One
reason we are able to recognize those we know is that “this sculpture [the
other’s face] in the memory is not without pre-established harmony” (Emerson
14). (Note: at one time, the change from “This” to “this” would have been noted
with brackets: “[t]his.” But no longer. MLA style has undergone some
streamlining; the 6th edition of the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers believes that writers
shouldn’t “stumble” over a quotation—hence the modifications.
To explain pronouns:
·
With the passing of time, “he [Emerson]
became known as one of the great orators of the time”
Ellipsis
terminology: The three dots together form one ellipsis. Add another
set of three dots and you have two ellipses.
Students should be encouraged to use
ellipses. By using ellipses, writers show that they are aware that not all
source words are worth quoting—only the most choice words. Dropping inessential
language in favor of an ellipsis clearly indicates that only the most choice
words are being kept in a quotation.
Two common uses of the ellipsis are
the three-dot ellipsis to indicate words deleted mid-sentence and the four-dot
ellipsis (really an ellipsis plus a period) to indicate words deleted just
before or after a period. (The period is the fourth dot.)
Here are some examples using
quotations from Woody Allen:
three dots: [original] It is impossible to travel faster than
the speed of light, and certainly not desirable, as one’s hat keeps blowing
off. [with ellipsis] It is
impossible to travel faster than the speed of light . . . as one’s hat keeps
blowing off.
four dots, ellipsis after a
period: [original]
Organized crime in
four dots, ellipsis before a
period: Organized crime
in
Note on spacing: Most word processors will have the
automated ellipsis turned on, which will turn three dots into a more unified,
bunched-together ellipsis. But in MLA style we bypass the automated ellipsis by
placing spaces between the dots. Here is the proper ellipsis spacing for each
of the three examples above:
Ø 1st example: space dot space
dot space dot space
Ø 2nd example: (no space after
final word) dot space dot space dot space dot
Ø 3rd example: same as the 2nd
example
Another note: In keeping with the streamlining noted
above, the 6th edition of the MLA
Handbook for Writers of Research Papers no longer requires that an ellipsis
be enclosed within brackets […].
And still another note: Often, students will want to use an ellipsis
to show words left off the beginning of a quotation, but this is not necessary.
In other words, rather than begin a quotation with “ … where the quotation
begins,” simply jump in and begin quoting. Our ellipses will appear in the
middle of sentences or to the right of sentences, but not to the left.
An MLA-Style Issue: Due to in-text citation, the four-dot
ellipsis will often appear as a three-dot ellipsis. Example: “Organized crime in America takes in
over forty billion dollars a year …” (Allen 31). (This
example is similar to the four-dot example above, except that a quotation mark
and the in-text citation appear between the ellipsis and the period.)
In-Text Citation
With in-text citation, we make our first move into the realm of
MLA style. MLA style offers us the option of taking the last name of the person
being quoted and placing that name inside parentheses:
·
In Poor Richard’s Almanac, we are reminded
that “Three may keep a
secret, if two of them are dead” (
(Note that the sentence-ending period moves from its usual
position to a position after the parentheses.)
Regardless of how we arrange our in-text citation, the page number
the quotation is take from is placed inside parentheses. As for the name of the
person being quoted, we may place that either in the sentence proper or inside
the quotation marks—but not in both places.
·
name in the sentence: In Poor Richard’s Almanac,
Benjamin Franklin reminds his readers that “Three may keep a secret, if two of them
are dead” (17).
·
name inside parentheses: In Poor
Richard’s Almanac, we are reminded that “Three may keep a secret, if two of them are dead” (
Quoting Quoted Material
Here is a passage from “The Educationist as Painkiller” by Neil
Postman: The great English poet John Milton was so moved by the prospect of
writing an essay on education that he called the reforming of education one of
“the greatest and noblest designs to be thought on.”
Suppose a student is using the Postman essay as source material;
and while reading Postman, our hypothetical student comes across the John
Milton quotation and decides she wants to use the
·
John
Milton believed that education reform should be considered along with the
world’s “greatest and noblest designs” (qtd. in Postman 4).
Some notes on quoting quoted
material:
·
You
should know how to do it.
·
However,
you should try to avoid it because:
a. Twice-removed quotations are often weaker
than once-removed quotations. Consider the difference between “I heard a friend
say” and “A heard from a friend who heard from a friend …”
b. When told that an essay/research paper
must include a certain minimum number of quotations, some students mistakenly
believe that to include quotations means to find material that occurs between
quotation marks.
Underlining and Italics
For whatever reason, many students have trouble remembering when
to use italics and when to use quotation marks. MLA style then poses an extra
challenge for students by reversing the usual “italics vs. underlining” rule.
Titles that would be italicized in other contexts are underlined in MLA style:
1. Fitzgerald concludes The Great Gatsby
with an image of oarsman rowing against the current.
How Much to Quote
Though most essay assignments stipulate a minimum number of
quotations, the error of overquoting should be warned against as well. The
general rule is that, while reading an essay, the “voice” of the writer should
come through. We should be able to identify the words and ideas of the essay as
the property of the essay’s writer. But when the number of quotations becomes
too excessive, the writer’s voice is no longer clear; it gets drowned out by the
numerous voices of those being quoted. In such a case, what we have is no
longer an essay, but a collection of quotations pasted to a few of the writer’s
words.
The Works Cited Page
The terms “bibliography” and “Works Cited Page” are not
interchangeable. A bibliography includes any works that relate the topic of a
book or essay—anything the writer has read or is familiar with. A bibliography
says “These are the works that have factored in to making me the thinker I now
am.” As a result, bibliographies are usually substantially longer than Works
Cited Pages. We are using MLA style, and we are asking students to create Works
Cited pages, not bibliographies.
The premise is simple: Any quotation that appears in a student’s
research paper must have a corresponding entry in the Works Cited Page.
The rules of MLA citation style explain how to arrange a citation
for a book with one author, a book with two authors, books with editors,
magazine articles, etc. Citation style for electronic sources is a relatively
new field and should be given special attention.
How to compose Works Cited Page citation entries can be found in
an MLA reference book or on the Internet, so the information will not be
presented here. However, here is an interesting little nugget worth learning—keyboard
shortcuts for formatting a Works Cited Page.
It might be better for you to do your initial word processing
simple, no-frills single spacing. Then, as a final stage, the paper can be
double spaced: Ctrl + A, Ctrl + 2. The Works Cited Page will need to be set in
hanging indent: select the text on the Works Cited Page (other than the “Works
Cited” title), Alt O+P (“O” then “P” while holding down Alt), Special =
Hanging, OK.
How to Set Up a Word
Processing Document
PART
1. Open a new document.
2. Go View → Header and Footer.
3. On the Formatting toolbar, click Align
Right. (This puts your cursor to the far right side of the Header you have
opened.)
4. Type your last name.
5. Close the Header by clicking Close in the
Header and Footer dialog box.
6. Go Insert → Page Numbers
7. You will get the Page Numbers dialog box.
For Position you want Top of page (Header); for Alignment you want Right; check
Show number on first page.
8. Click OK.
9. What you have just done is a marvelous
thing. Your last name will automatically appear in the Header on every page of
your document. Your page number will automatically appear right next to your
last name. When in Print Layout View, you can see your name and page number
sitting there in the Header in light gray.
PART TWO:
1. Your cursor is resting in the upper
left-hand corner of page one.
2. Type “First Name Last Name” and hit Enter.
(Type only what is between the quotation marks.)
3. Type “Mr. Moeller” and hit Enter.
4. Type “English 091” and hit Enter.
5. Type “
6. Type the title of your paper. Think of a
good title. In reality, you probably don’t have a good title before you’ve
begun writing, so type something like “This Is My Title.” Later you can go back
and change your temporary title to a title you can be proud of.
7. After typing “This Is My Title” click
Center on the Formatting toolbar and hit Enter.
8. Click Align Left on the Formatting
toolbar.
9. Hit the Tab key to indent line one a
half-inch.
10.
You
are now ready to begin your essay.
·
Use
12 pt. font.
·
Use
the standard font, probably Times New Roman.
·
Use
black ink only.
·
Use
standard margins, 1” at the top and bottom, 1” (or 1.25”) at the left and
right.
·
Your
text should be justified left, not left and right. In other words, the
text will make a nice neat line down the left side, but it will be ragged along
the right side.
·
Double
space. Double spacing does not mean to put two spaces between words; it means
to leave one blank line between each printed line. The best way to double space
is to first type the entire essay as a single-spaced essay; when you are
completely finished with everything, select all and double space; then print
it. If you double space before you write your essay, you might cause yourself
some spacing problems. The keyboard shortcut for double spacing is Ctrl + A (to
select all), then Ctrl + 2 (to double space).
·
No
spaces to the left of a comma or a period.
·
One
space to the right of a comma or period. Never hit spacebar spacebar.
·
Quotation
marks and apostrophes should be curved, like “ and ‘, not like " and '. To
fix this, go Tools > AutoCorrect. Under both the AutoFormat and the
AutoFormat As You Type tabs you will find "Straight quotes"
with “smart quotes.” If you find either of these boxes unchecked, check them.
·
Points
are deducted for errors, so make your paper error free. The errors that are
docked most heavily are the following:
·
Because
your goal is error-free copy, you must proofread your paper slowly and
carefully. Make sure there are no run-ons or fragments. Check little words like
its/it’s or their/there. It is permissible to correct one or two errors by
writing in pen on your final draft; more than that, and you should fix them on
the computer and print again.
·
In
formal writing, avoid using contractions. Say “do not,” not “don’t.”
·
Use
the spellchecker and proofread your paper.
About Titles
The standard title for an academic paper is a two-part title:
Creative Part: Straightforward Part
Some examples:
·
Whiffleballs
from Venus: The Atmosphere of Darkness in Edgar Allan Poe
·
Tending
Dreams: Rabbit Symbolism in Of Mice and
Men
In Titles, all words except conjunctions and shorter prepositions
get capitalized.
The Works Cited Page
Frieden, Bernard J., and
Lynne B. Sagalyn. Public Relations: Strategies and Tactics. 4th ed.
Gilligan, Carol. In a
Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development.
Lewis, Peter H. “Many
Updates Cause Profitable Confusion.” New York Times
Ruitenbeek,
Hendrick, ed. Freud as We Knew Him.
Tilin, Andrew. “Selling the Dream.” Worth Sept. 1997: 94-100.
Creating a Works Cited Page
Above is a sample works cited page. We’ll pretend that your works
cited page falls on page 8 of an imaginary research paper you have written.
We’ll assume that all pages in your imaginary research paper have your last
name in the header followed by a page number. Open up your header (View >
Header and Footer). In the header, aligned right, place your last name and the
number 8. (Don’t Tab or Space your way over; instead, use the Align Right
button to get over there.)
The title is simple. Type two words: Works Cited. Center your
title (the Center button). Not bold, not underlined. Leave it in 12 pt. font,
Times New Roman.
Type your six entries. After you have typed your six entries,
double space the entire page (Ctrl A, then Ctrl 2).
Now set all your entries in a hanging indent. Select the entries
only (don’t select the title, “Works Cited”). Go Format > Paragraph. Find
the drop-down menu under Special and choose Hanging. Now your paper has been
automatically formatted. Each of your eight entries begins at the left margin,
and each successive line is indented a half-inch.
Your entries should be alphabetized by the author’s last names.
Select all six entries (don’t select the title, “Works Cited”). Go Table >
Sort. There, now your works cited page has been alphabetized.
book, one author: Newberry, Louis. Hair Design.
The author, last name, comma, first name, period. Title,
underlined, period. The period does not get underlined. Place (city) of
publication, colon. Name of publisher, comma, year of publication, period.
Note: Underlining titles is not what you normally do when
typing text. Normally you place titles in italics. The same goes for the titles
of magazines and newspapers.
book, with editor: Foster, Carol E., ed. Women’s Changing Role.
After the editor’s first name, place a comma and the word ed.
magazine article: Idelson, Holly. “Gun Rights and Restrictions.” Congressional
Quarterly Weekly Report.
The name of the article is placed inside quotation marks, with a
period inside the quotation marks. The name of the magazine is underlined; the period
after the name of the magazine is not underlined. The date of the magazine’s
publication is written number, month, year, without commas. Here’s how
you write the months: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept.,
Oct., Nov., Dec. The date is followed by a colon, the page numbers of the
article, and a period.
newspaper article:
The name of the article is placed inside quotation marks, with a
period inside the quotation marks. The name of the newspaper is underlined; the
period after the name of the newspaper is not underlined. The page numbers of a
newspaper article are listed differently from the page numbers of a newspaper
article. You list the page number the article begins on and the section the
article begins on. If the article is continued on some later page, you indicate
this with a plus sign.