Compound and Complex Sentences
Some terminology: In English, there are a total of five methods for joining sentences, and
we will study all five. Four of them are classified as compound sentences; one method is classified as a complex sentence.
NOTE: The act of creating a compound sentence is known as coordinating, because you are joining
together two sentences—both are equal and both can stand alone.
The
act of creating a complex sentence is known as subordinating, because you are joining together two sentences that
are not equal: one is independent and can stand alone; the other is subordinate
and cannot stand alone.
The key prerequisite for
understanding the five ways of joining sentences is to understand what a
sentence is. Once you understand what makes a sentence, you can understand what
makes a compound or complex sentence.
Lesson 1: Sentences
A common definition of a
sentence is a word group that contains a subject and a verb or predicate.
subject: The rabbit tracks
verb or predicate: show sharply in the dew.
Note how the two components
work logically together. When we receive information—like the information
contained in sentences—we assume that there is probably a person or a thing
involved. That’s the subject. Then we assume that that person or thing probably
did something. That’s the verb or predicate.
By itself a subject does not
provide us with a complete thought. The
rabbit tracks, by itself, is incomplete. By itself
the verb or predicate does not provide us with a complete thought. Show sharply in the dew, by itself, is
incomplete. However, when we do get a complete thought when
we put the subject together with the verb or predicate.
Throughout this series of
lessons, we will be using the term sentence.
There is another term with the same meaning: that term is independent clause. There is no
difference between an independent clause and a sentence; therefore, we will
employ the term sentence.
Exercise 1: For each of the following, write yes or no. Yes means yes, this is a sentence. No means no, this is not a sentence.
1. The eastwind
gallops up from sea bringing salt and gulls.
2. Rattling like bones.
3. She shifts the
grass-clipper from her right to her left hand.
4. The broken column on
which the blackbird hen is laughing.
5. The potter rejected by
the pot.
6. The potter was rejected
by the pot.
7. A nail.
8. He drove the nail.
9. Old Jones made those
chains.
Lesson 2:
To compound is created when two or more items join together to form a
new item. The same is true of language. A compound sentence is created by
combining two sentences together so that a new and larger single sentence is
formed. Here is the formula:
·
Sentence
+ sentence.
There are four ways to
achieve this formula. We can discover each of the four ways by asking, “In the
formula sentence + sentence, what can
replace the plus sign?”
Here are the four
replacements for the plus sign:
A. a comma and a coordinating
conjunction
B. a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb,
and a comma
C. a semicolon (;)
D. a colon (:)
Here is a list of the seven
coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so. (Memorize them with the mnemonic device formed by taking
the first letter of each coordinating conjunction: FANBOYS.)
Here is a list of
conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, afterward, again, also, anyhow, as a result,
at last, at the same time, besides, consequently, conversely, earlier, even so,
eventually, finally, first, for example, for instance, further, furthermore,
hence, however, in addition, in any case, in fact, in like manner, in short,
indeed, instead, in the meantime, later, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely,
nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, on the contrary, on the other hand,
otherwise, still, subsequently, that is, then, therefore, thus.
Exercise 2: For each of the following sentences,
decide which of the four compound sentence methods (from the list above) is
being demonstrated. Simply write A, B, C,
or D to indicate the method being
used. Or write not if the sentence is
not a compound sentence.
1. At the banquet all the
Muses sang; therefore, they did not end their days in sight of blood.
2. Mist clogs the sunshine;
smoky dwarf houses hem me round everywhere.
3. The sea is calm tonight;
the tide is full.
4. Sophocles long ago heard
it on the
5. We were apart, yet I
bade my heart more constant be.
6. In this lone, open glade
I lie, screened by deep boughs on either hand.
7.
We need to decide what to put in your poem-painting: flowers are
always nice, particularly delphinium.
8.
I have a suggestion to make: draw the sting out as probingly as
you please.
9.
Now, silently as one mounts a stair we emerge into the open;
however, it is shrouded, veiled.
10. With aching hands and
bleeding feet, we dig and heap, lay stone on stone.
Lesson 3: Compound
Sentences—Comma + Coordinating Conjunction
Here is the pattern:
·
Sentence, coordinating conjunction sentence.
·
[the shorter form of the same] S1, cc s2.
This pattern is one of the most basic patterns for the compound
sentence. It is a pattern we encounter quite frequently in our reading. Here
are a few examples:
·
example 1: Elm branches radiate green heat, and blackbirds stiffly
strut across fields.
·
example 2: I pulled, but I could not free myself.
Because this pattern is so basic and so essential, let’s study the
examples more closely before we move on.
While writing, you should be aware of when you are creating this
basic compound sentence pattern. You must be aware that you are writing a
sentence, followed by a comma, followed by a coordinating conjunction, followed
by a sentence. So let’s take our two examples from above and break them down
into their component parts.
example 1:
Sentence (S1): Elm branches radiate green heat
comma: ,
coordinating conjunction (cc): and
sentence (s2): blackbirds stiffly
strut across fields.
example 2:
Sentence (S1): I pulled
comma: ,
coordinating conjunction (cc): but
sentence (s2): I could not free
myself.
In summary: As you write a compound sentence, be consciously aware
of each of the sentences component parts.
Exercise 3: Create four
compound sentences. Begin by copying the S1 you are
given:
S1 sentences:
1.
At the gates we are given new papers.
2.
We are given shots.
3.
Some of us were scholars in the old world.
4.
We came here to get away from false promises.
Directions, continued: For
all 4 sentences, convert the periods into commas. After the commas, 2 of the
sentences will use the coordinating conjunction and and 2 of the sentences will use but. Finally, conclude your compound
sentences with a logical choice from the four S2 sentences.
S2 sentences:
Our old clothes are taken.
Doctors ask questions.
Most of us didn’t finish
high school.
But it’s no different
here.
Lesson 4: Compound Sentences Vs.
Compound Verbs
A compound sentence is
(normally) punctuated with a comma before the coordinating conjunction. If what
you have is less than a compound sentence, leave the comma out.
The comma error is often
committed due to failing to distinguish between compound sentences and compound
verbs. Study these examples:
compound sentence:
The
wind swings past broken glass, and it seethes like a frightened cat.
compound verb: The wind swings past
broken glass and seethes like a frightened cat.
The only real difference
between the two sentences is the tiny word it:
it appears in the first sentence and doesn’t appear in the second.
Let’s go back to our
earlier definition of a sentence as a word group containing a subject and a
verb or predicate. In the S2 portion of the compound sentence, the
subject is it. If we remove the word it, we no longer have a subject in the S2.
With the word it in place, the
compound sentence contains two subjects and two verbs or predicates; without
the word it, the sentence contains
one subject and two verbs. Also, because the removal of it reduces the compound sentence to a compound verb, the comma is
no longer correct and must be removed.
Exercise 4: Rewrite each of the following compound sentences
as compound verbs.
1.
I grasped the tower like a cornstalk, and I snapped it from its
roots of rock.
2.
A quivering shadow of life-flame darkened the air, and it
sputtered a last drop of blood.
3.
The fisherman waded through slowly, and it ascended the other
side.
Now in the next three sentence reverse the process. Change each of the following
from compound verbs to compound sentences.
4.
The dictators in our neighborhoods wore blue suits and broke our
doors down.
5.
Winter throws his great white shield on the ground and breaks thin
arms of twisting branches.
6.
I look out my window and see that dirty pair of boots in the yard.
Lesson 5: Focus on Specific Coordinating Conjunctions: So, For, and Yet
There are seven coordinating
conjunctions; however, the conjunctions and
and but
tend to get used extensively, while the other five have much less attention
paid to them.
So implies cause-and-effect: s1 is the cause of s2.
Example:
·
The administration says the difficulties are only temporary, so we
return to going about our business.
For means because. For the
conjunction should not be confused with for
the preposition.
Examples:
·
for the
preposition: The flowers crack rocks in their defiant love for the light.
·
for the
conjunction: It is to Emerson I have turned now, for he has written of the moral harmony of nature.
Study these two
examples. Note that for
the conjunction (1) is a synonym for because
and (2) is used to join two complete sentences in a compound sentence.
Conversely, note that for the prepostion (1) is not a synonym for because and (2) is not used to join two complete sentences in a
compound sentence.
Yet is a close synonym of but.
Here are two sentences for comparing yet vs. but:
My fires are banked, but
still they burn.
My fires are banked, yet
still they burn.
Because the two
conjunctions are so similar, you are given a choice between the two. It would
make sense to choose the conjunction that sounded best in the given situation.
On the other hand, because but is
used much more commonly than yet, you
might decide to choose yet as having
a fresher sound than but.
Exercise 5: Copy each of the following compound sentences.
In place of the asterisk, add a comma and a conjunction—either so, for, or yet. In each sentence, circle your conjunction.
1.
We may suppose it is not love * love must leave its trace.
2.
He never learned how to write or to read, which is sad * he’s
really quite bright.
3.
A hook shot kisses the rim and hangs
there, helplessly * it doesn't drop,
4.
And there is no rock and no hill * they do not know it.
5.
Nothing gave but the walls’ sharp echo, so I swung again, harder,
and in half anger.
6.
I
wanted the doctor to turn it off, but I couldn't seem to ask, so I just stared.
Lesson 6: Focus on Specific Coordinating Conjunctions: Or and Nor
Or and nor require
certain conditions before they can be used to create compound sentences.
For or, the condition is a condition of possibility as opposed to
certainty. Consider this sentence:
·
The weasel is digging in the earth, or he died two years ago.
As it stands, this sentence fails to make sense because S1
and S2 contradict each other; it is not possible for both statements
to be true.
Therefore, when using or, it is customary to introduce an
element of uncertainty into the statements. A simple way to do this is by using
certain helping verbs, such as may,
might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, and would. These helping verbs create the sense of uncertainty in
which the conjunction or can be used
more readily.
Example:
·
He may have been a Greek from
Note: The conjunction or is more often used to compound grammatical units smaller than
complete sentences. For example, most writers would have constructed this
shorter version of the previous example: He
may have been a Greek from
Now, let’s look once again at the previous example.
·
He may have been a Greek from
You can see that several of the words from S1 were
repeated in S2. And, in fact, this is often the case when or is used to create compound sentences.
Without the repeated words, the elements being connected by or would create something less than a
compound sentence.
Now we’ll turn our attention to nor. In order for the conjunction nor to create a compound sentence, two
conditions are necessary:
1.
S1 must contain a negative word (like not).
2.
The word order in S2 get
rearranged, as if a question were being asked.
Now let’s take two statements and join them into a compound
sentence using nor.
statement
1: The weasel did not
dig in the earth.
statement
2: It did not die two
years ago.
Here is the compound sentence that results from these two
statements:
·
The weasel did not dig in the earth, nor did it die
two years ago.
Notice how the two conditions are present in this sentence.
condition
1: A negative word (not) appears in S1.
condition
2: S2
reverses the normal it did word
order, which becomes did it—as if a
question were being asked.
Exercise 6: Copy each of
the following compound sentences. In place of the asterisk, add a comma and a
conjunction—either or or nor. In each
sentence, circle your conjunction.
1.
The road promises never to end * does it promise to alter.
2.
Now he hated nothing * could he feel anything but the urgency that
compelled him onward continually.
3.
He wouldn’t have robbed a bird’s nest * would he have brought a
stork to harm.
4.
My father’s gates are good and strong * they would not hold you
long!
5.
She might decide to live and die alone * she might decide to
reside with married sisters.
6.
The banana is left to rot on the plantations * it is left to rot
in the cars along the railroad tracks.
Review Exercise 1
We have not yet been
introduced to correlative conjunctions. Correlative conjunctions are paired
conjunctions. Here is a brief list:
·
both … and
·
neither … nor
·
either … or
·
not only .. but also
We are only going to take this brief glance at correlative
conjunctions—for two reasons: (1) Only the either
… or and the not only … but also
forms can create compound sentences, and (2) creating compound sentences with
correlative conjunctions is really not so different from creating compound
sentences with the coordinating conjunctions we are studying. Here is an
example of a compound sentence using either
… or.
·
Either we will study correlative conjunctions in great detail, or
we will take only a brief glance at them.
That was our brief glance.
Here is what we have learned so far:
·
A
compound sentence is two sentences joined together to create one sentence.
·
In
order to be proficient at joining two sentences, you must firmly grasp the
concept of what makes a sentence.
·
A
sentence contains a subject and a verb or predicate; a sentence can also stand
alone.
·
A
comma and a coordinating conjunctions is one of the
four ways to create a compound sentence.
·
There
are seven coordinating conjunctions: for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so. These should be memorized using the mnemonic
device FANBOYS.
·
Since
two complete sentences are required in order to create a compound sentence, we
can refer to the first of the two sentences as S1 and the second of
the two as S2.
·
A
compound sentence (which is punctuated with a comma) should not be confused
with a compound verb (which does not get a comma).
·
Some
of the coordinating conjunctions require individual study:
o
For means because and is not to be confused with for the preposition.
o
Or requires a degree of uncertainty,
which can be achieved through helping verbs such as may, might, must, can, could, shall, should,
will, and would.
o
Nor requires two
conditions: (1) S1 must contain a negative word (like not) and (2) the word order in S2
get rearranged, as if a question were being asked.
Read each of the following 10 sentences. Don’t write
the complete sentences; instead, write the conjunction that would logically fit
in the blank. Although some of them are interchangeable, use each one one time only. One of the sentences is especially meant to
be used with or; another sentence is
especially meant to be used with not.
Three of them cannot create compound sentences at all; for these 3, write not a compound sentence.
Use each of these words once: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Use not a compound sentence 3 times.
1. What he was looking for I never
learned, ___ he never knew himself.
2. He took off his tie and dark jacket,
___ we went outside to break in the new glove.
3. It is not the sunrise, which is
flaring all over the eastern sky, ___ is it the rain falling out of the purse
of God.
4. I’ve been numb all day to much I’m
supposed to love, ___ I’ve tried, at least, to care for the bumbler.
5. The click as you walk in may be the
heat coming on, or the click may be the floorboards settling.
6. Twilight rises like dark steam from
the dewy grass, ___ you don't see it.
7. I put one good board
beside another and screw them down, ___ things won’t come apart.
8. We passed the rusted
hulls of fishing boats, ___ the scaffolding of floating mussel beds.
9. I was on sabbatical, ___
looking for a place to write.
10. It was like looking
through a padlock, ___ seeing an undeserved dawn.
NOTE:
Punctuating Conjunctive Adverbs
When a conjunctive adverb is used in the
creation of a compound sentence, the standard punctuation is to place a
semicolon to the left of the conjunctive adverb and a comma to the right.
In this lesson we will learn to exception
to this rule.
the exception: If the conjunctive adverb is
a one-syllable conjunctive adverb, the comma is unnecessary.
There are only 7 one-syllable conjunctive
adverbs; therefore, we refine our exception to this more specific rule:
·
Don’t place a comma
after these conjunctive adverbs: first, hence, next, now, still, then, thus.
NOTE:
The difference between a
coordinating conjunction (sits neutrally between the s1 and s2) and a conjunctive
adverb (attaches to the s2).
NOTE:
the word following the
semicolon is not capitalized (unless it is a word that normally gets
capitalized—like a proper noun, for example).
Lesson 7: Using Conjunctive
Adverbs: Relationships of Time
Using a comma and a conjunction is the first of four ways to
create compound sentence. The second method involves using conjunctive adverbs.
Here is the pattern for creating compound sentences with
conjunctive adverbs:
·
Sentence; conjunctive adverb, sentence.
·
[the shorter form of the same] S1; ca, s2.
Examples:
·
I could try to count the poplar, birch and oak leaves in their
shifting welter outside my bedroom window; however, I go to crack two eggs into
the cast-iron skillet that's even older than this house.
·
His teeth were graminivorous, like a
cow’s; therefore, he should have wished to pass long peaceful nights upon the
grass.
Back
in Lesson 2 you were presented with a complete list of conjunctive adverbs. A
list of that length might easily prove overwhelming; therefore, we will group
the conjunctive adverbs according to their function and study them one or two
groups at a time.
We
begin with the conjunctive adverbs that show relationships of time:
·
afterward,
at last, at the same time, earlier, eventually, finally, first, in the
meantime, later, meanwhile, next, now, subsequently, then
Exercise 7: Copy each of the following sentence pairs. Create compound
sentences by joining the two sentences with a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb,
and a comma. Don’t use any of the conjunctive adverbs twice. (First, next, now, and then do not need
to be followed by commas.) In most cases, more than one right answer is
possible.
1.
The
rain falls out of the purse of God. It seems more like the blue helmet of the
sky.
2.
I
hear the voice of the last wolf making his way through the ruined city. He lies
down on the floor in the empty room where I sit.
3.
At
present it is tragedy. It will turn into myth.
4.
The
blizzard causes people to watch hours of news devoted to weather. People stop
to talk to each other.
5.
Someday
we’ll live in the sky. The house of our lives is the world.
6.
The
roses fell one petal at a time. Now the ferns are turning dry.
Lesson 8: Using Conjunctive
Adverbs: Agreement and Disagreement
Conjunctive adverbs (as do all conjunctions) show relationships
between two or more parts. In the case of compound sentences, the conjunctive
adverb shows the relationship between the S1 and the S2.
Perhaps the two most fundamental relationships are same and different.
Imagine a debate between S1 and S2. S1
speaks first and makes a statement. S2 then gets up to speak. S2
has a choice from a wide variety of potential statements; however,
whatever statement S2 chooses to make, it is likely to fall into one
of two categories: either the I agree with you
category or the I disagree with you
category.
Here are the conjunctive adverbs that show these two
relationships:
the s2
agrees with the s1: again,
also, besides, further, furthermore, in addition, in fact, in like manner,
indeed, likewise, moreover, otherwise
the s2
disagrees with the s1: conversely,
even so, however, instead, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the
other hand, still
Exercise 8: Copy each of the following sentence pairs. Create compound
sentences by joining the two sentences with a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb,
and a comma. Don’t use any of the conjunctive adverbs twice. Choose 3
conjunctive adverbs from the agrees with
category and 3 from the disagrees with
category. In most cases, more than one right answer is possible.
1.
A tambourine is a hip shake. A train whistle is a guitar.
2.
Most people return to where they came from. Some do nothing else.
3.
The yellow daybreak brings with it a frost-like
dew. The rabbit tracks show as sharply in the dew as they would in snow.
4.
Reeds dance in the eastwind, rattling.
The warblers sit still and silent.
5.
The black root cracked the jail walls. The walls continue to
stand.
6.
Now is the time of year when bees are wild and eccentric. Their
time remaining on earth is short.
Lesson 9: Using Conjunctive
Adverbs: Examples and Cause-and-Effect
In
lesson 7 we practiced using conjunctive adverbs that showed relationships of
time; in lesson 8 the conjunctive adverbs showed relationships of agreement and
disagreement. Our last two categories of conjunctive adverbs are examples and cause-and-effect.
Here
is an example of providing an example:
·
s1:
I have had several strange dreams. s2: I was standing alone on a
stage and the closing curtain would not drop.
Here
is an example of cause-and-effect:
·
s1:
I was standing alone on a stage and the closing curtain would not drop. s2:
The audience looked confusedly at one another.
Here
are the conjunctive adverbs for these two categories:
the s2 is
an example of the s1: for
example, for instance, namely, that is
the s1 causes
the s2: accordingly, as a
result, consequently, hence, therefore, thus
Exercise 9: Copy each of the following sentence pairs. Create compound
sentences by joining the two sentences with a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb,
and a comma. (The word thus does not
need a comma.) Don’t use any of the conjunctive adverbs twice. Choose 3
conjunctive adverbs from the examples category
and 3 from the cause-and-effect category.
In most cases, more than one right answer is possible.
1.
We have all-inclusive plans for you. We had thought of sending you
to the middle of the desert.
2.
We never saw you give in to toil or dejection. To you it was given
to save many along with yourself.
3.
But at the present time there is no hangman. There is a way of
escape.
4.
Perhaps you care to set the world a-boil and do a lot of
equalizing things. You might want to shake hands with paupers and appoint them
men.
5.
One
often has to make do with what one has. I have eaten pancakes with that clear
corn syrup on them because there was no maple syrup and they
weren't very good.
6.
I
like the generosity of numbers. I like the way they are willing to count
anything or anyone.
Review Exercise 2
Because the
complete list of conjunctive adverbs is somewhat lengthy, in this review
exercise we will focus on using nine of the more commonly used conjunctive
adverbs.
In this review exercise you will create 9
sentences. For each, you are given the s1. You are given 3
conjunctive adverbs and 3 s2 sentences to choose from. Create
compound sentences by copying the s1 and adding a conjunctive adverb
and an s2 to each.
group 1
1.
I have been willing to forage among the brittlebush and saxifrage.
2.
I
think I’m the only man in
3.
conjunctive adverbs: consequently, for example, furthermore
S2 sentences:
·
I
have been discovered an abundance of wild mint.
·
I
quote William Meredith verbatim and cite Lowell and Levertov
over ham and eggs.
·
The
group
2
4. The dog trots out the front door
every morning without any money or the keys to her dog house.
5. My father would examine the weedy
area before weeding.
6. At the lowest points, he went into a
restaurant, pocketed half a dozen cubes of sugar, and drank cold good water
before quietly exiting.
conjunctive adverbs: however, moreover, nevertheless
S2 sentences:
·
She
knows that she can always return to the home where she is well taken care of.
·
He
knew exactly where and what angle to drive the weeder
down.
·
None
of the staff ever noticed.
group
3
7. Paul Dempster
had a handsome tackle box in which he’d stored up gems for twenty years.
8. AIDS was slaughtering people left
and right.
9. It appeared to be nothing more than
a common flower.
conjunctive adverbs: then (don’t use a comma with then), therefore, on the other hand
S2 sentences:
·
Someone
stole it.
·
I
attended a lot of memorial services that year.
·
As
I looked at it I discovered endlessness.
Lesson 10: Semicolons Between Two
Closely Related Sentences
We have studied two of
the four ways to create compound sentences. Here are the patterns for the first
two methods:
·
Sentence, coordinating conjunction sentence.
·
[the shorter form of the same] S1, cc s2.
·
Sentence; conjunctive adverb, sentence.
·
[the shorter form of the same] S1; ca, s2.
Now we will examine our fourth method, which is simply to place a
semicolon between two sentences. The pattern:
·
Sentence; sentence.
·
[the shorter form of the same] S; s.
Here is the rule for using the semicolon: Place a semicolon between two closely related sentences.
NOTE: don’t capitalize
after the semicolon
Examples:
·
At last we came into the unleashed wind; the
·
My desk is cleared of the litter of ages; before me glitter the
fair white pages.
Exercise 10: Copy the S1
sentences you are given. To each, add a semicolon and an S2 chosen
from the list below.
1.
Envy of my obvious leisure seemed to green your glittering eye.
2.
Our dining-room is pretty dark.
3.
The cake tastes sweeter than this sugar cane.
4.
I felt as if I had flown there.
S2 Sentences:
·
Hate for mine apparent pleasure filled you as I motored by.
·
Our kitchen’s hot and very small.
·
If you eat too much of it, you want more.
·
I was weightless.
Lesson 11: Semicolons Between Two
Mirror-Image Sentences
In the previous lesson we learned that a semicolon can create a
compound sentence by connecting two closely related sentences.
The idea of closely related
can be a vague one. It is likely the case that most any two sentences that
appear in a sequence of sentences can be considered closely related. After all,
if they weren’t closely related, they probably wouldn’t be appearing
side-by-side.
The idea of closely related
leaves the judgment up to the writer. If you—as the writer—believe that two
sentences are a little more closely related than normal, you are perfectly
justified in using a semicolon instead of a period and a capital letter.
However, there is a situation in which using a semicolon is much
more mandatory and far less a matter of subjective opinion. When two sentences
share some of the same words as one another, then the close relationship of
those two sentences needs to be
indicated by a semicolon. We can call such sentences mirror image sentences.
Examples:
·
Pretend you don’t owe me a thing; I’ll pretend I don’t owe you a
thing.
·
We’ll leave the past stacked up behind us; we’ll face the future
that lies stacked up before us.
·
Old newspapers are what nobody will ever read again; today’s
newspapers are waiting to be read by everyone.
By studying these examples, you can see how some of the same words
that appear in S1 also appear in S2. There is a balance
to the two sides, a bit like a teeter-totter. Such sentences can be quite easy
to create, because once you have your S1, you simply state “the
other side of the coin” in order to create S2.
Exercise 11: Copy the S1
sentences you are given. To each, add a semicolon and an S2 chosen
from the list below.
1.
Out of the bones of young men arises the lodgepole
pine.
2.
These hills are sandy.
3.
Goya drew a pig on a wall.
4.
I read the primrose and the sea and remember nothing.
S2 Sentences:
·
Out of the bones of young women arises the alder.
·
The valleys are swampy.
·
Picasso sketched a cow on the floor.
·
I read Arcturus and the snow and
remember everything.
Lesson 12: Using Colons to
Create Compound Sentences
NOTE: don’t capitalize
after the semicolon
With colons, the relationship between S1 and S2 is different than
with semicolons. Semicolons link two more-or-less equal sentences. It is often
possible to take two sentences that are linked by a semicolon and swap places
with them.
Examples:
·
The systole addressed the diastole; the diastole addressed the
systole.
·
The diastole addressed the systole; the systole addressed the
diastole.
There is really no difference between these two versions of the
same information. However, two sentences that are linked by a colon cannot swap
places. Each has a very specific function.
·
When a colon is used to
create a compound sentence, the s1 makes a general statement; the s2
illustrates or explains the s1.
Examples:
·
She raises her left hand: she must shield her eyes from the
slanting sun.
·
We have discovered what the grasshopper eats: a single blink of
dew sipped from a clover leaf.
Study these examples. In each, the general statement made by the s1
leaves something unexplained; in each, the s2 explains what the s1
had left unexplained.
In the first example, we wonder “Why does she raise her hand?” The
s2 answers our question: “Oh, in order to shield her eyes from the slanting
sun.”
In the second example we wonder “And what is it that the
grasshopper eats?” The s2 answers our question: “Oh, a single blink of dew
sipped from a clover leaf.”
Exercise 12: Copy the S1
sentences you are given. To each, add a semicolon and an S2 chosen
from the list below.
I was astounded by what I saw through that window.
Yesterday Dracula smiled at me with teeth in perfect alignment.
The sound makes me sad.
I invite sistergirl pilot home for
dinner at my parents.
S2 Sentences:
·
I saw the struggle of darkness against darkness.
·
Dentistry can work miracles.
·
I listen to a dove on a swaying bough mournfully cooing.
·
Her skill at setting down the airplane has saved our lives.
Subordinating Conjunctions
after, although, as, as if, as long as, as though, because,
before, even if, even though, if, provided, since, so that, though, till,
unless, until, when, whenever, whether, while
Review Exercise 3
In the previous exercises we
have practiced creating compound sentences by using semicolons and colons. We
have studied three types of compound sentences:
A. 2 closely related sentences joined
by a semicolon
B. 2 mirror-image sentences joined by a
semicolon
C. a general statement and an
explanation of the general statement joined by a colon
In this review exercise, the sentences are in groups
of 3. First copy the s1 sentence you are given; then add a semicolon
or colon; then add an s2 sentence. Each group of 3 will contain one A sentence, one B sentence, and one C sentence.
group
1:
Cathy is walking in the street; she sees Arthur, a stranger,
weeping.
We had a good meal, I and my friend; you didn’t eat so well at
all, you and your friend.
Jarvis is compelled to turn against his friend, Emily: he has
discovered that Emily has been putting him down behind his back.
group
2:
There once was a woman who kept a shop selling trinkets to
tourists; the shop was not far from the dock.
The unsightly school building is now a pickle warehouse; the
dreadful courthouse is now an antiques shop.
group
3:
There is a famine of years in the land; the women are beautiful,
but prematurely old and worn.
It was a pancake clock, which they had plenty of in those days; it
was not a waffle clock, which was much harder to come by.
Security quickly escorted him from the establishment: he had been
slurping from the milk pail and grabbing at the newer vegetables.
group
4:
Children twist hula-hoops; they imagine a door to the outside.
A dispute on the far side of town erupts into a war; a dispute on
this side of town turns into a group hug.
At last we could breathe a sigh of relief: the chicken coops had
not floated away on the flood.
Lesson 13: Using
Subordinating Conjunctions
Let’s review:
With
compound sentences, the two sentences (the s1 and the s2)
are equal to one another. Both are independent clauses; both could stand alone.
Example:
·
complex sentence: The parade is turning into our street, for the
other streets have been barricaded.
In this example, if you remove the comma and the coordinating
conjunction (for), you have an s1
and an s2: both are independent clauses; both can stand alone. A
compound sentence is defined as a sentence that contains two coordinate
independent clauses.
We have learned four ways to create compound sentences.
·
compound sentence: The parade is turning into our street, for the
other streets have been barricaded.
·
compound sentence: The parade is turning into our street;
therefore, the other streets have been barricaded.
·
compound sentence: The parade is turning into our street; the other
streets have been barricaded.
·
compound sentence: The parade is turning into our street: for the
other streets have been barricaded.
Now, in this lesson, we will turn from compound sentences to complex
sentences.
·
complex sentence: The parade is turning into our street because
the other streets have been barricaded.
NOTE:
·
coordinating conjunction = use a comma
·
subordinating conjunction = no comma
You will notice that in order form a complex sentence instead of a
compound sentence, we simply use a different conjunction. In this case we used
the conjunction because, which is a
member of the conjunctions known as subordinating
conjunctions. Here is a list:
·
after,
as if, as long as, as soon as, although, as, as if, because, before, even if,
if, since, so that, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, wherever,
while
Exercise 13: For each of
the following, copy the s1, choose a subordinating conjunction from
the choices given, and add an s2 from the choices given. No commas!
group
1:
1.
We will get back to doing little things for each other.
2.
History cannot be erased.
3.
A flock of minnows shivers awake.
subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as
s2 sentences:
·
We paste these stamps together to form a tiny train track.
·
We can soothe ourselves by speculating about it.
·
Night closes in.
group
2:
4.
I stare up too long because I love cedar waxwings.
5.
Sunlight severs down and dulls and shatters.
6.
I think I would wait all day for the hummingbird’s green face.
subordinating conjunctions: because, before, if
s2 sentences:
·
I
love cedar waxwings.
·
It hits the ground.
·
I were a lily.
group
3:
7.
Orpheus sings accurately.
8.
The actors left the stage one-by-one.
9.
You should go into the fields and consider the orderliness of the
world.
subordinating conjunctions: so that, until, when
s2 sentences:
·
The notes mount straight up out of the well of dim noon.
·
Only a child running around on a unicycle was left to occupy
center stage.
·
Loneliness comes stalking.
Lesson 14: Focus on Specific
Subordinating Conjunctions
In this lesson we’ll take a closer look at these
subordinating conjunctions: since, so
that, although, though, until, and
till.
Since
Since has two meanings. One of its meanings is shared with because. And since because, like since, is a
subordinating conjunction, the two words can be interchangeable.
Examples:
·
·
Since
also means from that time forward.
This is a meaning that since does not share with any other
subordinating conjunctions.
·
It has been thirty years since
I have written you a letter.
So That
The subordinating
conjunction so that is easily
mistaken for the coordinate conjunction so.
Examples:
·
The mother has given herself up as prey so that her babies can escape.
·
The dinotherium fell most heavily, so the fossil he left was broken to
bits.
One way to
distinguish between so and so that is to determine intention. We use so that when the action taken in the s1 is intentional;
we use so when the action is not
intentional. In the examples above, the mother in the first example intentionally gave herself up as prey; the dinotherium in the second example did not fall
intentionally. In both examples the s1 causes the s2; the difference is that
the mother intended to cause the s2 and the dinotherium
did not intend to cause the s2.
Which then brings us to the
second difference: since so is a coordinating conjunction and so that is a
subordinating conjunction, the choice between the two conjunctions is actually
a choice between two types of sentences. If you use so, you get a compound sentence; if you use so that, you get a complex sentence. Also, since so creates a compound sentence, it gets
punctuated with a comma; since so that
creates a complex sentence, it receives no comma.
Although,
Though, Until, and Till
Our study of these four
subordinating conjunctions is a simple one. Although
and though are two equal words; until and till are also two equal words. All you need to know is that both
choices are available. Anytime you choose to use although, you could have chosen
though; anytime you choose to use
until, you could have chosen till.
Examples:
·
He is too full of sleep to care although he knows his enemy is there.
·
He is too full of sleep to care though he knows his enemy is there.
·
The voice of La Muerte slowly numbs them until they leave wrinkled bodies of flowers withering on the stump.
·
The voice of La Muerte slowly numbs them till they leave wrinkled bodies of flowers withering on the stump.
Exercise
14: Copy each of the following sentences. In each sentence, replace the
subordinating conjunction with a different subordinating conjunction. In order
to decide on replacement subordinating conjunctions, you will need to use the
information from this lesson contained above.
1.
I would turn down dinner invitations so I could eat alone.
2.
They think they have done me no injury because I am happy and
dance and sing.
3.
The summer is reluctant to go although the scythes hang in the
apple trees.
4.
It was best to let Michael rest until he felt healthy and strong.
Lesson
15:
In lesson 13 we saw that the difference
between a compound and a complex sentence can be as simple as changing
conjunctions. We can take any two sentences and call them s1 and s2.
To form compound sentences, we can use a coordinating conjunction, a
conjunctive adverb, a semicolon, or a colon. To form complex sentences, we can
use a subordinating conjunction.
·
S1
[coordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverb, semicolon, or colon] s2
= compound sentence.
·
S1
[subordinating conjunction] s2 = complex sentence.
The question remains: Why do the subordinating conjunctions form a
different type of sentence than the sentences formed by the other conjunctions?
Both and and because are types of conjunctions. How
can two different sentence classifications result?
Here is the difference: Subordinating
conjunctions attach to the s2; coordinating conjunctions do not.
Again, take any two sentences:
·
S1
s2.
When you place a coordinating conjunction (like and) between the two sentences, that
coordinating conjunction stands alone. It doesn’t attach to either of the two
sentences. But when you place a subordinating conjunction (like because) between the two sentences, that
subordinating conjunction attaches to the s2.
Let’s look at a couple examples. We’ll let brackets [ ] group each
sentence into its component parts.
·
compound
sentence: [You are difficult
to understand], [and] [you are as various as your land].
·
complex
sentence: [You are
difficult to understand] [because you are as various as your land].
So far we have determined that the difference between a compound
sentence and a complex sentence is the type of conjunction being used. Now
let’s take that idea a step further. Here is our new—and improved—definition of
complex sentence:
·
A complex sentence contains a subordinate
clause. (A subordinate clause is a subordinating conjunction joined to a
sentence.)
Let’s look one more time at our previous example of a complex
sentence:
·
[You
are difficult to understand] [because you are as
various as your land].
Using our definitions from above, we can see that this complex
sentence has two distinct parts:
·
the
independent clause (a sentence; can stand alone): you are difficult to understand.
·
the
subordinate clause (cannot stand alone): because you are as various as your land.
NOTE: For the purposes of
this series of lessons, we are referring to the subordinate clauses as
subordinate clauses. There are other varieties of subordinate clauses, but
since none of the other varieties are being covered here, the term subordinate clause will work just fine.
However, if we did need to distinguish these subordinate clauses from other
subordinate clauses, we would refer to them as adverbial subordinate clauses.
Exercise 15: In this
exercise you are given five sentences. Turn each sentence into a subordinate
clause by placing a subordinating conjunction in front of it. You may choose
any subordinating conjunction that makes logical sense. You are only creating
subordinate clauses, not complete sentences, so don’t
place periods at the ends of your subordinate clauses.
list of subordinating conjunctions to choose from: after, as if, as long as, as soon as, although, as,
as if, because, before, even if, if, since, so that, though, till, unless,
until, when, whenever, wherever, while
1. The map was drawn by a mad sea-captain.
2. John Brown has his justice after all.
3. The sparkling noise of their riding is
ever in our ears.
4. A swift runner is never captured or
subdued.
5. The snow fell deep on that Eastern town.
Lesson 16: Reversing the
Order
We have learned that what makes subordinating conjunctions
different from coordinating conjunctions is that, unlike coordinating
conjunctions, they attach themselves to a sentence. We have also learned that
the end result of a subordinating conjunction attached to a sentence is a
subordinate clause. Now we will take what we’ve learned and move one step
further.
The complex sentence pattern we’ve learned:
·
Sentence + subordinating conjunction + sentence.
Example:
·
We trusted the map + although + it had been drawn by a mad
sea-captain.
However, the subordinating conjunction (although) attaches to the s2, so what
we actually have is this pattern:
·
Sentence + subordinate clause. (or)
·
We trusted the map + although it had been drawn by a mad
sea-captain.
Now, let’s move to the next step in understanding complex
sentences. The sentence + subordinate
clause pattern is only one of two basic patterns for the complex sentence.
The other pattern is created by simply reversing the two halves of the pattern.
Here are the two patterns:
pattern
1: Sentence +
subordinate clause.
pattern
1: We trusted the map +
although it had been drawn by a mad sea-captain.
pattern
2: Subordinate clause +
sentence.
pattern
2: Although it had been
drawn by a mad sea-captain + we trusted the map.
NOTE:
Exercise 16: Each of the
following four sentences is an example of a pattern 1 complex sentence. Each
contains two sentences joined by a subordinating conjunction. Take each of the
four pattern 1 sentences and rewrite them as pattern 2 sentences. Use one comma
per sentence.
1.
The South retreated north to
2.
Seas of blood will have parted us before October returns.
3.
The day is sweet though the shadows have blended.
4.
The workers get IOUs instead of wages so that there'll be cheap
bananas.
NOTE: an exception to the
rule—sometimes a comma is placed before the subordinating conjunction
Lesson 17:
The Conjunctions
We have studied five methods for combining two
sentences into one. Two of those methods require a punctuation mark only: a semicolon
or a colon. The other three methods of combining sentence pairs require
conjunctions.
When writing, the skills of creating compound and
complex sentences are among the most basic and the most important. This is why
it is essential to become very familiar with the three groups of conjunctions.
You need to memorize as many of the conjunctions as possible,
and you need to keep the functions of each separate from one another.
Throughout these lessons, you have seen the
conjunctions appear in complete lists and in partial lists. There are only 7
coordinating conjunctions; therefore, this list of 7 should be memorized in its
entirety (FANBOYS). Since you are now being asked for a greater degree of
familiarity with the conjunctions (as close to memorization as possible), the
lists of conjunctive adverbs and subordinating conjunctions will be reduced to
shorter lists of the more commonly used conjunctions only.
coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, so
conjunctive adverbs: consequently,
finally, for example, furthermore, however,
in fact, later, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, on the other hand,
then, therefore, thus.
subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, because,
before, if, since, so that, though, till, unless, until, when
NOTE: TEAM captains, and, however,
because—whatever and can do, all the coordinating conjunctions can do; whatever
however can do, all the conjunctive adverbs can do; whatever because can do,
all the subordinating conjunctions can do.
What the conjunctions do:
coordinating conjunctions:
·
Are
used in creating compound sentences.
·
Appear
between two sentences.
·
Are
punctuated with a comma to the left.
·
Create
compound sentences.
conjunctive adverbs:
·
Are
used in creating compound sentences.
·
Appear
between two sentences.
·
Are
punctuated with a semicolon to the left and a comma to the right.
·
Create
compound sentences.
subordinating conjunctions:
·
Are
used in creating complex sentences.
·
Appear
between two sentences—or, in the reversal pattern, appear at the beginning of
the sentence.
·
Are
punctuated with no comma—or, in the reversal pattern, with one comma.
·
Create
complex sentences.
When you are quite familiar with the three groups of conjunctions
and their properties, you should be able to move fluently between the groups.
For example, a compound sentence created with a coordinating
conjunction …
·
Blue
mustangs wrap the rivers of their hooves through our canyons, and the cottonwoods close in
around us.
… could also be written as a compound sentence created with a
conjunctive adverb …
·
Blue
mustangs wrap the rivers of their hooves through our canyons; furthermore, the cottonwoods
close in around us.
… or as a complex sentence created with a
subordinating conjunction …
·
Blue
mustangs wrap the rivers of their hooves through our canyons as the cottonwoods close in
around us.
Exercise 17: Rewrite each
of the following sentences according to the directions given. Each conjunction
change will also require a change in punctuation.
1.
Today he lies on the rug, brought down by fleas, yet in dreams he is running free.
[Replace the coordinating conjunction with a conjunctive adverb.]
2.
My black boots were rubber, for it always rains on our parades. [Replace the coordinating
conjunction with a subordinating conjunction.]
3.
I listen to your despair; meanwhile, the sun and the clear pebbles
of rain move across the landscape. [Replace the conjunctive adverb with a subordinating
conjunction.]
4.
The
pumpkins are gone and the tomatoes withered, nevertheless the woman carries
water on her head. [Replace the conjunctive adverb with a coordinating
conjunction.]
5.
I can’t speak though I am made mostly of mouth. [Replace the subordinating
conjunction with a coordinating conjunction.]
6.
Some
children saw her before she disappeared into the white cloud. [Replace the subordinating
conjunction with a conjunctive adverb.]
Compound and Complex
Sentences Review
In the previous lessons we
have learned the following:
·
The
creation of compound sentences and complex sentences are two ways of joining two
sentences together into a single sentence.
·
Before
we can understand the joining of sentences, we must first have a clear
understanding of what a sentence is: a sentence is a word group with a subject
and a verb or predicate; sentences can stand alone.
·
With
compound sentences, the two sentences being joined can both stand alone; in
other words, both are independent clauses.
·
With
complex sentences, one of the sentences can stand alone and one cannot stand
alone; we call these two parts the independent clause and the subordinate
clause.
·
There
are four ways methods for creating compound sentences; there is one method for
creating complex sentences.
·
Although
there is one method for creating complex sentences, there are two possible
sentence patterns that can result from this method.
·
These
are the four methods for creating compound sentences:
o
a comma and a coordinating conjunction (Be
careful not to confuse this method with a mere compound verb.)
o
a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a comma
o
a semicolon
o
a colon
·
The one method for creating complex sentences requires two
sentences joined by a subordinating conjunction.
·
The subordinating conjunction attaches itself to a sentence, thus
creating a subordinate clause.
·
The subordinate clause may appear after the independent clause or
before it:
o
pattern 1: Sentence + subordinate clause.
o
pattern 2: Subordinate clause + sentence.
·
The semicolon and the colon can create compound sentences without
the assistance of any conjunctions. The semicolon links two closely related or mirror-image
sentences; the colon adds an explanatory sentence to the right (the s2)
that explains something from the more general sentence to the left (the s1).
·
The other three methods for joining sentences require
conjunctions. It is important to have a solid familiarity with these three word
groups:
o
coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS): for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. [This is a
complete list.]
o
conjunctive adverbs: consequently, finally, for example, furthermore, however, in fact,
later, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, on the other hand, then,
therefore, thus. [This is a partial list.]
o
subordinating conjunctions:
after, although, as, because, before, if, since, so
that, though, till, unless, until, when. [This is a partial list.]
·
Each
type of conjunction has requires its own special punctuation: a coordinating
conjunction needs a comma to the left; a conjunctive adverb needs a semicolon
to the left and a comma to the right; a subordinating conjunction requires no
comma at all—unless the subordinate clause is placed in front of the
independent clause, in which case one comma is needed.
Practice Test
Read the 12 sentences below and provide a 3-part response for
each. Number your paper 1, a, b, c, 2, a, b, c, etc. You will end with 12c.
Here is what you will write for the three parts of each answer:
a. Label the sentence CD if it is a compound sentence; label the sentence CX if it is a complex sentence.
b. Write the conjunction and label the
conjunction CC if it is a
coordinating conjunction; CA if it
is a conjunctive adverb; SC if it is
a subordinating conjunction.
c. If the sentence contains a subordinate
clause, write the first and last words of the subordinate clause, with three
dots (an ellipsis) in-between; if the sentence contains no subordinate clause,
write none.
the 12 sentences
1.
The
leaves do not wither, nor do they hang heavily on long melodious boughs.
2.
Let
us make ourselves visible, or we might disappear suddenly from the sidewalks of
3.
Straphanging bodies ride the uptown express, and you know they are
irreplaceable.
4.
The
barefoot people romp in it and laugh, but they never take thought for tomorrow.
5.
I
could try to count the poplar, birch and oak leaves outside my bedroom window;
however, I go to crack two eggs into the cast-iron skillet.
6.
Some
ants make slaves of and exploit smaller ants; consequently, the ant speaks out
of both sides of its mealy little mouth.
7.
We
have been shaped in the world’s shape by the single voice; therefore, we wake
too late and find ourselves already weeping.
8.
A
soaring lament rose and rang silver like a bell; thus I covered up my face and
implored God to destroy me before battle fell.
9.
They
are human because they have arms and veins and secrets.
10. After her plane disappeared, I drove back
to the foothills and the fog.
11. I would stop and speak to her if I had
brought my Kierkegaard with me.
12. Though I greatly delight in these and the
water-lilies, that which sets me closest to weeping is the rose and white color
of the smooth flag-stones.
Practice Test
Read the 12 sentences below and provide a 3-part response for
each. Number your paper 1, a, b, c, 2, a, b, c, etc. You will end with 12c.
Here is what you will write for the three parts of each answer:
a. Label the sentence CD if it is a compound sentence; label the sentence CX if it is a complex sentence.
b. Write the conjunction and label the
conjunction CC if it is a
coordinating conjunction; CA if it
is a conjunctive adverb; SC if it is
a subordinating conjunction.
c. If the sentence contains a subordinate
clause, write the first and last words of the subordinate clause, with three
dots (an ellipsis) in-between; if the sentence contains no subordinate clause,
write none.
the 12 sentences
1.
The
leaves do not wither, nor do they hang heavily on long melodious boughs.
2.
Let
us make ourselves visible, or we might disappear suddenly from the sidewalks of
3.
Straphanging bodies ride the uptown express, and you know they are
irreplaceable.
4.
The
barefoot people romp in it and laugh, but they never take thought for tomorrow.
5.
I
could try to count the poplar, birch and oak leaves outside my bedroom window;
however, I go to crack two eggs into the cast-iron skillet.
6.
Some
ants make slaves of and exploit smaller ants; consequently, the ant speaks out
of both sides of its mealy little mouth.
7.
We
have been shaped in the world’s shape by the single voice; therefore, we wake
too late and find ourselves already weeping.
8.
A
soaring lament rose and rang silver like a bell; thus I covered up my face and
implored God to destroy me before battle fell.
9.
They
are human because they have arms and veins and secrets.
10. After her plane disappeared, I drove back
to the foothills and the fog.
11. I would stop and speak to her if I had
brought my Kierkegaard with me.
12. Though I greatly delight in these and the
water-lilies, that which sets me closest to weeping is the rose and white color
of the smooth flag-stones.